Provide a critique of the research methodology contained in pdf file Essay

Provide a critique of the research methodology contained in pdf file - Essay Example A research methodology, which is to be used for one research study, say, incidence of HIV in underdeveloped countries may not be applicable for yet another study, say, role of governess in children welfare, etc. So there is nothing like the best, or most suitable research methodology. â€Å"A Research on reading comprehension needs to develop alternative methodologies which have a more qualitative orientation.† A lot would definitely depend upon the circumstances of the case study, its theoretical presentations, the research proposal and what exactly is needed to be achieved, through the proposed Research Study. Therefore, a lot would depend upon the availability of data, as is evidenced in the current study of the effects of e-commerce, on the developments of e-commerce in Russia. The growth of e-commerce in Russia has not kept pace with the growth rate experienced in other parts of the world, especially UK, USA and other countries of the European Union. Due to lack of purchasing power by the people (27%), lack of people with needed infra-structure (25%), poor quality of telephone services, (18%), inadequate postal system in the country (16%) and other impeding circumstances, it has not been possible to carry out an extensive research as would have been necessary to fully analyse the impact of ecommerce in Russia in recent years. (Doern 2006, p.315- 327). In the first place, the population sample concentrates of just the two big cities in Russia, St. Petersburg and Moscow, have been taken for research purposes. Therefore it could be said that the study has limited itself to study of samples available in these two cities. It is necessary that in order to assess the impact of ecommerce on the economy of Russia, it is necessary to take an extensive study which encompasses, nearly all the major computer using population of the country. It is seen that, in the first phase, the sample has been drawn from the

Theories of Social Inequality Essay Example for Free

Theories of Social Inequality Essay Karl Marx’s theory to explain social inequality is based on the unequal division of resources between two groups: bourgeoisie and the proletariat, or the wealthy/business owners and the laborers. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie have the monetary power to gain economical resources, as they own the businesses where the proletariat must work to gain money to survive. The bourgeoisie maintains this position by paying the proletariat just enough to provide for his or her basic needs of survival. Marx states that the bourgeoisie create the social rules, cultural values and norms, and the proletariat goes along with it. This idea is the basis for what Marx calls, â€Å"false consciousness,† which is the idea that the† system† is working and there is no reason to change it because the proletariat hopes that one day he will become the bourgeoisie; this false hope is what keeps social inequality in a perpetual cycle. Marx believed that social inequality can be resolved through the abolishment of capitalism altogether. He suggested that this could be made possible if the proletariat would stand up and revolt, and rise up against capitalism by refusing to work and sell their very valuable labor, which the bourgeoisie needs in order to survive. Marx did not see social inequality as inevitable, unlike Max Weber. The basis for Weber’s theory can be found in Karl Marx’s theory, but takes it a step further and breaks the social structure up even more. According to Max Weber’s theory behind social inequality, there are three major components that play into creating an unequal division in society: social class, status in society, and political parties. Each group directly relates to one another, although they are not all the same thing. Weber contends that social classes are divided because of certain lifestyles or opportunities that are given to a person. If a person is born into a wealthy family, he or she is automatically provided with a lifestyle that will propel him or her into success through money and/or properties, which inevitably creates an opportunity for power. This demonstrates how money and power clearly shapes classes. Classes do not always make up communities though. Communities are shaped by social status, which is one thing that Weber is clear about. Social status is defined by the opportunity for a wealthy lifestyle. The main difference between status and class is that of the value system within each of the groups. Through a lifestyle that one lives, ideals and values are developed, which creates one’s political stance. Political parties are a direct reflection of the pattern that creates class and social status. They are all intermingled: class determines social status, which shapes ideals within a political party. Weber makes a strong argument that social stratification is inevitable or â€Å"guaranteed† because lifestyles (which you are born into) create status groups and once those are established, over a period of time, the people accept them as status quo. Once a standard of life is set, it is rarely moved. Karl Marx’ theory behind social inequality is most compelling. It explains that social inequality, which is detrimental to so many, can be resolved. His theory gives hope for resolution and even offers a plan of action to do so, yet there have been little done by those who feel like they are oppressed by the unjust division of resources to rise up and change the system which oppresses them. Marx’ theory is timeless and continues to speak to those issues which are seen in today’s society.

Americas War on Drugs: Policy and Problems :: America Drug War Politics Narcotics Essays

America's War on Drugs: Policy and Problems In this paper I will evaluate America's War on Drugs. More specifically, I will outline our nation's general drug history and look critically at how Congress has influenced our current ineffective drug policy. Through this analysis I hope to show that drug prohibition policies in the United States, for the most part, have failed. Additionally, I will highlight and evaluate the influences acting on individual legislators' decisions to continue support for these ineffective policies as a more general demonstration of Congress' role in the formation of our nation's drug policy strategy. Finally, I will conclude this analysis by outlining the changes I feel necessary for future progress to be made. Primary among these changes are a general promotion of drug education and the elimination of our current system's many de-legitimating hypocrisies. However, before the specific outcomes of Congressional influence and policy impact can be evaluated it becomes important to first review the general history and current situation of drugs today. Our present drug laws were first enacted at the beginning of the century. At the time, recreational use of narcotics was not a major social issue. The first regulatory legislation was for the purpose of standardizing the manufacturing and purity of pharmaceutical products. Shortly after, the first criminal laws were enacted which addressed opium products and cocaine. Although some states had prohibited the recreational use of marijuana, there was no federal criminal legislation until 1937. By contrast, the use of alcohol and its legality was a major social issue in United States in the early 20th century. This temperance movement culminated in the prohibition of alcohol from 1920 to 1933. Recreational drug use, particularly heroin, became more prevalent among the urban poor during the early ?60s. Because of the high cost of heroin and its uncertain purity, its use was associated with crime and frequent overdoses. A drug subculture involving the use of marijuana and other hallucinogenic drugs began to emerge in mainstream American society in the late ?60s and was loosely associated with an overall atmosphere of political protest concerning the Vietnam War and civil rights. Drug use, including heroin use, was prevalent among soldiers during the Vietnam War and many of them returned addicted. Since that time, the recreational use of drugs, particularly marijuana, has been a constant aspect of youth culture in all social classes.

Assessment for Software Essay

?The use of technology to assess student learning has proven useful which has expanded its use in all learining enviroments. Technology has improved education so vastly that some schools are fully online while others mix campus classes with the virtual setting. This has created a steady growth of innovative software being used to assist teachers and stydents within those settings. Some of the software have becoe essential to education. Applying them in consistent manner helps the student build their foundation for life in our technology driven society. The advent of countless wireless devices has elevated our knowledge base and software has elevated as well. Even though some technologies and softwares are exspensive or require added training, the pros outweigh the cons in terms of benefits. Technology in the classroom has showed its value on numerous levels and assesments is another good example. Since technology had proved useful here, many developers have created multiple programs which allow educators to efficiently apply and review traditional assesments. For example, some tests can be given on computers via the school and online within the comforts of home. The results can be stored and shared easily with parents and other adminstrators within the school district to ensure accuracy. This is good because modifications can be made easily pertaining to the content and other needs for revision. Using these softwares in traditional schools has been so successful that new online schools have come into existence. This type of distance learning leans primarily on software for all assessments. GCU and Walden university are just a few examples of entities that use software for assessments. In education we must have assessments to grasp a view of whats being understood and what needs to be reviewed. These assessments can be formative or summative. Summative assessments are ones given at any time such as pop quizzes or tests after certain content. Formal assessents are given over a time span with multiple activities being took into account. Its helps the teachers rewiew whats being taight to ensure mastery of the content. There is also self assessment and peer assessment which are fors of student assessment. Using assessments is a great tool to ensure students are equally learning whats needed for full understanding of content. A good eaple of an beneficial assessment are mid-term exams. Students get to review their strengths and defiencies and guide further endeavors in the right direction. Technology has changed this aspect as well. Tests can now be taken on computers which is easier to grade and overall more efficient. Results can also be stored digitally for ongoing review. Some applications in this area may require added technological knowledge of teachers but should be easily manuervered by average students of this digital age. Other major aspects that have hindered expanded use of software for assessments are the availability of necessary equipment and qualified instructors to facilitate them. Low income areas don’t have funds for upgrades and most teachers have a knowledge base that predates todays capabilities resulting in a need for extra training. This training can be time consuming and sometimes expensive. Our government is trying to counter these problems with grants for teachers and schools. Even though it can be agreed that software has given assessmnets a needed uplift, they are some situations that digital assessments may not be the most accurate. For example, subjects like advanced science and health require hands on eperiences which would in turn have some traditional assessments. For example, I primarily wanted to take education with emphasis on chemistry online but I was informed I needed to be able to go to a traditional lab because of the content matter and instruction needed to master such. Areas such as language and mathematics don’t have those issues. These challenges have created new curriculum consisting of online mixed with campus courses. Depending on the content, a teacher must be prepared to use new assessment software and traditional assessments. In conclusion, technology has created new means to evaluate everyone involved in our educational system. With the use of software, these assesments can be modified and reviewed easier than ever. Using these This usage has rewards not only in classrooms but in nature with less use of paper, pencils and other tangible products.

Analyze Attitudes Toward and Evaluate the Motivations Behind

Analyze attitudes toward and evaluate the motivations behind the European acquisition of African colonies in the period 1880 to 1914 During the late 1800’s, Europe was looking for a way to improve themselves as a whole. With growing population and a steady decline in available work, something new had to be done. Countries looked towards Africa to serve as new colonies for the Europeans in order to better their own countries. During the European acquisition of African colonies in the period 1880 to 1914 Europe’s attitude towards Africa was that Africa was the inferior race in comparison to the Europeans.With the help of a strong feeling of nationalism, Europeans were motivated to acquire new lands in order to improve their motherland’s power and economy with new available work. In the years from 1880 to 1914, Europe’s attitude towards the acquisition of Africa’s land is that the Europeans were more advanced race and felt as if it was their right as E uropeans to take the lands for themselves. This statement is supported by document 11, in which Martial Henri Merlin, the governor of French Equatorial of Africa’s speech in 1910.In this speech, Henri claims that it is the, â€Å"right of a civilized, fully developed race to occupy territories which have been left fallow by backward peoples who are plunged into barbarianism†¦ What we exercised is a right. † This speech shows the attitude of the Europeans by saying that it is the European’s right to take that land from the uncivilized people of Africa. Henri clearly views Africa as the inferior race by calling the backwards and barbarians. He also justifies his actions by calling it a right of the Europeans to do this.Another example of Europe’s attitude toward Africans is exampled by document 6 George Washington Williams in his letter to Leopold II in 1890. In this letter, it says, â€Å"When he gave the black brother a cordial grasp of the hand, th e black brother was surprised to find his white brother so strong that he nearly knocked him off his feet. † In this letter, George is demonstrating how he can use the new advancements in technology, to fool the uneducated and uninformed African people that he is stronger and more dominant.These methods were used to acquire land by making treaties with native chiefs shows Europe’s attitude and how they will do whatever they want in order to acquire more lands. The motivation behind conquering colonies in Africa starts with the opportunity to thrive economically. In document 9 from the Resolution of the German Social Democratic Party Congress 1900, it states that acquiring new lands, â€Å"†¦corresponds†¦to the greedy desire of the bourgeoisie for new opportunities to invest†¦ [in] new markets.This shows one of the motivations for colonization; to invest and open new markets in the new lands in hope to make a profit. The desire for new markets in Europe w as getting bigger and bigger now that the population was rising and jobs were becoming scarce. Colonizing new areas in Africa would lead to more imports and exports leading to more jobs which seemed appealing to most people. Supporting the idea of creating a better economy is document 4, which is a speech in 1888 by Joseph Chamberlain.In his speech he says, â€Å"We have suffered much in this country from depression of trade. We know how many of our fellow-subjects are at this moment unemployed. † This quote shows that Britain’s trade is declining with other nations and many of the people are unemployed. This is motivation for the British to colonize in Africa because with new colonies in Africa, trade would increase between Britain and the rest of Europe from the recourses Africa can provide. Colonizing in Africa would bring more money and more jobs to Europeans so it motivated people to do so.Apart from economic growth, Europeans also supported the colonization of Af rica because is made the motherland powerful. In Europe, there was no room to have countries expand their borders, meaning colonizing in Africa was the only way to do so. In Document 1, Prince Leopold II had a conversation in 1861 in which he said, â€Å"Colonies are useful, that they play a great part in that which makes up the power and prosperity of states†¦ let us strive to get one in our turn†¦to lead to progress in every sense†¦ [and] prove to the world that Belgians are an imperial people. Colonies were not only used to gain wealth but they were also a sign of power. The more land that a country can acquire, the more of a threat they can be to other countries. Gaining power is a very big motivation for Europeans to colonize Africa. In this conversation, Prince Leopold strongly suggests that Belgians should see the colonizing as a step toward domination and more power and should support the cause. Another person to encourage the colonization of Africa is Benjam in Disraeli, the British prime minister. In his speech to the House of Commons regarding the Suez Canal (doc. 0) he says, â€Å" I have always and do now recommend [colonizing] as a political transaction, and one which I believe is calculated to strengthen the empire. † Although Benjamin believes that it is not a good financial investment to purchase the land and hope for a profit, he finds that the new land will strengthen the empire by expanding its boarders to new lands in Africa. Power serves as a motivational factor because all countries want to be more powerful than its rivals and power comes from the expansion of a country’s boarders.Nationalism also contributes towards the power of a country and nationalism is displayed in document 12. Louis Bernard, a French colonial official, wrote in a memoir that he â€Å"found the image of a victorious and conquering France†¦ I was in a country of empire, an empire in which I participated instead of submitting, as it was in our annexed, Alsace and Lorraine. † Louis believes that his country is better than it is currently doing because of his strong sense of nationalism. Louis sees France as an empire which fought and didn’t surrender.He believes that France could hold more power than what it currently wields now. His motivation to see France as an empire is why France is motivated to secure parts of Africa for themselves. Through the early 20th century, countries in Europe were looking to becoming more powerful than their rivals. With this need to be better, countries looked to Africa to expand their country’s boarders in order to gain power and enhance their country’s economy. Europeans justified their actions because they saw the Africans as barbaric and backwards people and thought that it was the European’s right to take African lands.

Heckler

1. The three rounds fired from his 9mm Heckler and Koch MP-5SD exploded into the armed figures center mass with a sickening thud. His body slumped to the floor leaving a trail of blood smeared down the wall. This excerpt reflects the mood throughout Tom Clancys Rainbow Six. Rainbow Six is a newly formed top-secret anti-terrorist unit under the control of ex-navy seal, John Clark. Alister Stanley is the Executive Commander of Rainbow, while Domingo Chavez (Ding) is in charge of the assault and mission planning elements. During the first six months of operation, Rainbow Six is called upon three times. The first incident, which requires their attention, occurs at a Swiss bank where terrorists have gained control of the bank and taken hostages. Disguised as a Swiss SWAT team, Rainbow effectively neutralizes the situation with only one hostage casualty. Not only is this their first combat trial, but also it offers them a chance to organize and correct problems in their planning. The second call to action for Rainbow takes place in Germany where an international trader is taken hostage in his mansion. More Rainbow elements, such as snipers, are introduced during this scenario. No hostages were killed; however, all the terrorists were neutralized. The final mission Rainbow is called upon to mediate is at a large amusement park in Spain. Thirty children had been taken hostage and were going to be killed unless the French government releases their leader, who earlier in the book, was found to be in a French maximum-security prison. The Rainbow team uses an electronic jamming devi!ce to scramble the terrorists cell phones, and then picks them off one by one. After the fighting, the only death involved a child in a wheelchair who was shot earlier as a threat to rep...

Birth To Three Matters Framework †Theatre Essay

Birth To Three Matters Framework – Theatre Essay Free Online Research Papers Birth To Three Matters Framework Theatre Essay I am going to look at the aspects of play outlined in the birth to three matters framework (December, 2002). This framework was created to ensure that children could develop to their full potential. The framework was designed to help practitioners support children’s development in the early years. There are four aspects of play outlined in the birth to three matters framework. These are a skilful communicator, a competent learner, a healthy child and a strong child. These aspects of play celebrate the skill and competence of babies and young children. They highlight the interrelationship between growth, learning development and the environment in which children are cared, nurtured and educated. Each aspect has four components; to enable the aspects to be reached the components must be followed. The aspect a strong child is important as it is essential for a child to be strong. Strong incorporates being capable confident and self-assured. A key time for this development to begin is during the early years. The four components of this aspect are; a sense of belonging, me, myself and I, being acknowledged and developing self assurance. A sense of belonging focuses on acquiring social competence and confidence. This could include being with others that they trust, valuing individuality and contributions made by others and self, having a role within a group and being able to snuggle in with a key person. The New Zealand Ministry of Education (1996) says that if children feel that they belong they are more likely to develop inner well-being, security and identity, they should be able to understand what they do is valued so they can develop confidence to explore new activities. Me, myself and I focuses on the child’s realisation of individuality. This includes growing awareness of self, realisation that he/she is different and separate from others, recognition of personal characteristics and preferences, exploring what he/she can do. Schaffer (1992) said that babies are constantly becoming aware that they exist. Being acknowledged and affirmed focuses on experiencing and seeking closeness form others. These includes needing recognition, acceptance and comfort, being able to contribute to secure relationships, understanding that they are valued by and are important to someone and exploring the emotional boundaries they build. Post and Hohmann (2000) believe that children depend on the affirmation and warmth of trusting relations they have developed. Developing self-assurance focuses on trusting and relying on a child’s own abilities. This will include gaining self-assurance through close relationships, becoming confident in what they can do, being able to value and appreciate their abilities and feeling self-assured and supported. Murray and Andrews (2000) believe that children with secure attachments can cope with difficulties better. Children’s play is essential for children to develop these components. To help a child develop into a strong child. This framework and curriculum for pre-school is child centred and based upon play. To help a child develop self-assurance a practitioner could give babies and young children a favourite toy to play with independently. Gradually increasing this independent play time. Ensuring that an adult is nearby to offer quiet support and interest. Providing equipment the child will appreciate will encourage further independent play. Skinner said that if we enjoy doing an activity we are more like y to repeat and learn from it. That is why it is essential to provide toys and materials a child will appreciate and like. Encourage play that involves collaborative play and communal sharing times. This will encourage the child to take responsibility and learn that others are important as well as themselves. Also encouraging children to collect things for themselves allows children to develop their self-assurance. This links to point four of the principles of the pioneers for early childhood education in the modern context. Point four is ‘Children learn best when they are allowed to make errors, decisions and choices, and respected as autonomous learners.’ Katz (1993) states that if children are given freedom within a setting they are more likely to respect the setting and feel inclined to have the correct attitude to learn. To incorporate this learning into play involves planning specific activities that promote this learning. Activities should allow children to play near an adult. This is because young children enjoy solitary play and investigation but an adult is needed to offer assistance and confirmation during an activity. Children with diverse needs often have low self-assurance so therefore it is important that you show you appreciate them and their efforts. It is also a good idea because children, especially those with diverse needs have self-confidence that is influenced by adult input. Children with diverse needs may need extra reassurance. Choosing tasks that encourage children to complete them independently are a good way to boost their self-assurance. Some children with diverse needs may not be able to complete a task but their effort should be praised and encouraged, you should show that you appreciate their effort. This links to point 7 of the principles of the pioneers for early childh ood education in the modern context. This states what a child can do is more important than what a child cannot do; this should be that child’s starting point in education. Being acknowledged and affirmed is also important for the child to become a strong child. Play with the young child, singing songs, have fun and laughing with young babies. When an adult communicates with a child they should be face to face with the child and contact should be established by eye contact, voice or light touch. Showing and teaching children about others and how it feels to be them allows them to understand other. This can be done by reading stories with different voices and allowing children to dress up as others. Point nine of the principles of the pioneers for early childhood education in the modern context states that relationships with others are vital in a child’s life. Vygotsky’s view was that social interaction helped develop higher functioning in children. Brunner agrees with this and says that the adult child relationship helps develop children’s problem solving skills and attitudes to help facilitate the problem solving behaviour. Quality relationships help pave the way for quality education in later life. Planning activities to help this component to be fulfilled should include activities in which children can build secure attachments to key workers. Children with diverse needs may have different responses but they should be entitled to the same opportunities and experience of others. Some children may need additional time and attention; this should be provided without ignoring other children. One way to promote awareness of self is to create a booklet about the child. This can be created with thee support of parents and other carers. This shows the child that as an individual they are acknowledged and are important. A sense of belonging is important for a strong child as it allows the child to explore the world from a secure base. To help a child develop appropriate sense of belonging the practitioner should set up appropriate play activities and have opportunities to support the child. Include parents to help create records of a child’s life at home. Showing children that they are valued as a person. Set up the environment to stimulate all the children’s senses, for example different smells, music and lighting for children to enjoy. Share tasks with home and nursery. For example get children to participate in household tasks in the nursery and allow a child to take home a nursery toy to look after for a while. This helps a child develop a sense of belonging as this helps develop a sense of security at home and in the childcare setting. To help promote this the setting could provide each child with their own place to put things. This could be something simple like a tray. Creating a display with children’s families, pets and homes will give them something to look at if they get homesick. It also provides the children with the chance to see other family types and to see that each family is different. This will help children recognise different cultures, race and gender. This helps children feel valued. A further way to do this is to talk about different cultures with a child, listening to their input. Talking about children’s individual achievements or significant events to them also promotes a sense of being valued. Also talking about physical characteristics and individual preference promotes a sense of belonging. This component links to the second of the principles of the pioneers for early childhood education in the modern context. This point states that children have feelings, ideas and relationships with others. Children need to be physically and motional healthy. Pringle (1974/1980) built on Maslow (1962) and Isaacs (1968) work. Pringle asserts that children have primary and secondary needs. Primary needs are those necessary for survival, nourishment, shelter and clothing. Secondary needs are love, security, need for new experiences, praise, recognition and responsibility. A school/nursery setting should see to primary and secondary needs for quality education to be achieved. Me, myself and I is the final component needed for a child to grow into a strong child. It involves helping a child to learn about and get to know themselves and their own capabilities. Respect, care, love and emotional support help a child develop a strong sense of trust, emotional security and a positive self image. A practitioner could imitate a baby’s actions and provide mirrors to show them what they look like and what their actions look like. A practitioner should always value a child’s comfort object. This will show the children you value and understand their emotional needs. The child should also be allowed to make decisions about their actions, for example what they are going to play with, where they are going to sit and who they are going to sit with. This allows the child to develop a positive self image of them as others are showing they have the confidence in them making the correct decision. Practitioners should plan specialised times to be with children giving them their full attention being attentive to their needs. Some children with diverse needs, for example babies that are blind, deaf or have severe learning difficulties have to have constant reminders that someone is there and they are valued. Practitioners should take the time to explain to a blind baby what it looks like; using feelings to show what is being talked about. For a deaf child gesturing to their face whilst looking in a mirror. This will encourage them to develop an awareness of self. Parents and carer should be encouraged to provide artefacts from home. To ensure that the setting reflects many cultures. This helps children from different culture to accept and be proud of their culture. Children should do activities that develop their independence like feeding fish and washing themselves. Also allow children to develop their independence, sense of control and sense of being valued by the community. This can be done by allowing children to make their own decisions. It is important for these things to develop. If a child looks physically different it is important for children and adults to accept the differences. This links to point five of the principles of the pioneers for early childhood education in the modern context. This point reinforces the importance of self discipline in development of individuality and this will increase their sense of being valued. Vygotsky says that in play children exercise their greatest sense of control so they can get most out of play. This emphasises the importance of play during childhood. Dowling (1995) states that rewards and punishments only have short term results as children do not have a chance to reflect analyse or think why they are being punished or rewarded. Self-discipline rather than adult-led discipline is more effective. This is what is required for a child to develop into a strong child. They need appropriate support from a key adult to ensure proper relationships are formed. The environment is also important; an appropriate environment allows a child to feel they belong. Significant adult and environment have significant impact on children’s development. Their sense of self, group identity, emotions and relationships will develop if an appropriate environment is provided and adult support is given. References: New Zealand Ministry of Education. (1996). Te Whariki Early Childhood Curriculum. Wellington, New Zealand; Learning Media LTD. Schaffer, H. In Alvarez, A. (1992). Live company Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy with Autistic Borderline, Deprived and Abused Children. London; Routledge. Post, J. Hohmann, M. (2000). Tender Care and Early Learning, Supporting Families and Toddlers in Childcare Settings. Michigan; High/Scope Press Murray, L. Andrews, L. (2000). The Social Baby, Understanding Babies Communication from Birth. Richmond; CP Publishing Bruce, T. Meggitt, C. (2002). Childcare and Education (3rd Ed). Great Britain; Hodder and Stoughton Bruce, T. (1997). Early childhood Education (2nd Ed). Great Britain; Hodder and Stoughton Tassoni, P. (2002). Certificate Childcare and Education. Oxford; Heinemann Sure Start (2003). Birth to Three Matters. Suffolk; DFES Publications Research Papers on Birth To Three Matters Framework - Theatre EssayPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenOpen Architechture a white paperInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThe Project Managment Office SystemComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationThree Concepts of PsychodynamicHip-Hop is ArtAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia

Looking for Black Holes in Out-Of-The-Way Galaxies

Looking for Black Holes in Out-Of-The-Way Galaxies Black holes are strange beasts in the cosmic zoo. They come in two types: stellar and supermassive. Its now well known that most galaxies have many stellar-mass black holes scattered throughout. Theyre usually created by the deaths of stars in supernova explosions. Theyre sometimes found in binary systems, where a black hole and a white dwarf or some other type of star are doing an orbital dance with each other. An artists conception of a stellar-mass black hole (in blue) hat likely formed when a supermassive star collapsed, feeding from material ejected by a nearby star. ESA, NASA and Felix Mirabel) Meet the Behemoths The largest black holes, the supermassives, are tucked away in the hearts of galaxies and contain the mass of millions or billions of stars. They spend at least some of their time chowing down on material in their immediate neighborhoods. Most of the supermassive black holes astronomers know about are tucked away  in galaxies that themselves are bundled together in clusters. The largest one found so far has the mass of 21 billion suns and holds court in the core of a galaxy in the Coma Cluster. Coma is a huge conglomeration that lies 336 million light-years away from the Milky Way galaxy. The heart of the Coma Cluster of galaxies; one of the galaxies contains the most massive black hole ever found. This HST image reveals galaxies and globular clusters associated with the core of the cluster. NASA/ESA/STScI That wasnt the only big one out there. Astronomers also found a 17-billion-solar-mass black hole hunkered down in the core of a galaxy called NGC 1600, which itself is in a cosmic backwater where only about 20 galaxies exist. Since most of the really big black holes live in the big cities (that is, in well-populated galaxy clusters) finding this one out in the galactic sticks tells astronomers that something strange had to have happened to create it in its current galaxy. Merging Galaxies and Black Hole Build-ups So, how does a monster black hole get stashed away in a small-town galaxy cluster? One possible explanation is that it merged with another black hole at some point in the distant past. Early in the history of the universe, galaxy interactions were much more common, building ever-larger ones from smaller ones. Galaxy collisions contribute to the formation of supermassive black holes. This Hubble Space Telescope image shows a collision called the Antennae. During the course of the collision, billions of stars will be formed and any central black holes in each of the colliding galaxies can merge to form ever-larger monsters. NASA/ESA.STScI When two galaxies merge, not only do their stars and gas and dust mingle, but their central black holes (if they have them, and most galaxies do) migrate to the core of the newly formed, more massive galaxy. There, they orbit each other, becoming whats called a binary black hole. Any stars or clouds of gas and dust are in double jeopardy from the gravitational pull of these black holes. However, this material can actually steal momentum from the black holes (provided it doesnt fall right into them). When that happens, the stars escape, leaving the black holes with less momentum. They start to move closer together, and eventually, they merge to create a behemoth black hole. It continues to grow by gobbling up gas funneled to the core throughout the collision. Growing a Massive Black Hole So, how did NGC 1600s black hole get so massive? The most likely explanation is that it was extremely hungry at one point in its early life, leading it to suck in lots of gas and other material. That huge appetite may explain also why the host galaxy is in such a small cluster, compared to other supermassive black holes in galaxies in the hearts of much larger clusters. NGC 1600 is the largest, most massive galaxy in its group. Its also three times brighter than any of the other nearby galaxies. That huge difference in brightness is not something astronomers have seen in other groups. Most of the galaxys gas was consumed long ago when the black hole blazed as a brilliant quasar from material streaming into it that was heated into glowing plasma. In modern times, NGC 1600s central black hole is relatively quiet. In fact, astronomers called it a sleeping giant. That explains why it hadnt been detected in earlier studies of the galaxy. Astronomers stumbled across this massive monster when they were measuring the velocities of nearby stars. The intense gravitational field of the black hole affects the motions and speeds of stars. Once astronomers were able to measure those speeds, they could then determine the black holes mass. How Do Astronomers Even Find a Black Hole? Astronomers used special instruments at the Gemini Observatory in Hawaii to study the light coming from the stars near the black hole in NGC 1600. Some of those stars are circling the black hole, and that motion shows up in the starlights fingerprint (called its spectrum). Other stars had motions that seem to suggest that they had once ventured a bit too close to the black hole and were gravitationally flung away in a more-or-less straight line from the galaxy core. This makes sense since Hubble Space Telescope data also showed the core to be very faint. Youd expect that if the black hole were tossing stars away from itself. Its possible that NGC 1600s core has ejected enough stars to make 40 billion suns. That tells astronomers theres a pretty powerful and massive black hole hidden away at the heart of this galaxy, which lies some 209 million light-years from Earth. Instruments attached to Gemini Observatory can be used to study the fingerprints of light streaming away from the regions around black holes such as that in NGC 1600. Gemini Observatory Key Takeaways Black holes exist throughout many galaxies. The cores of spirals and ellipticals usually contain supermassive black holes.The elliptical galaxy NGC 1600 has a fairly massive black hole at its heart.Astronomers are working to understand why this galaxy has such a massive black hole. Sources â€Å"A View of the Giant Elliptical Galaxy NGC 1600.†Ã‚  HubbleSite - The Telescope - Hubble Essentials - About Edwin Hubble, hubblesite.org/image/3723/news.Dunbar, Brian. â€Å"What Is a Black Hole?†Ã‚  NASA, NASA, 21 May 2015, www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-a-black-hole-k4.html.NASA, NASA, science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/black-holes.

Child abuse and neglect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Child abuse and neglect - Essay Example Child abuse can occur at every cultural line and socioeconomic level (Clark 58). Some of the pivotal reasons for the occurrence of child abuse are lack of resources, stress of caring children, marital conflict, deficiency of maturity and isolation from family. Neglect is the form of child abuse which refers to as the failure of parents to provide child. It can also be considered as the failure of caretakers to provide the fundamental needs of a child. Neglect of a child may include concerns of medical care, education, housing, clothing and adequate amount of food. Lack of nurture, love and adequate supply of necessities for the survival of child are experienced by neglected children. The essential role of child protection service is to investigate the report of child abuse and neglect and assess the risk of harm on child.The goal of CPS is to promote the well-being and safety of children by providing safe

What Is Modernism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

What Is Modernism - Essay Example The essay "What Is Modernism" analyzes modernism movement. Every change is guided by unique principals for this case modernism involved a break from indigenous traditions and continual progression. Modernists celebrated intelligence, radical thinking and creativity because these were the abilities of mankind furthermore, they did not fall captive of indigenous limits. Realism period involved art that painted the subject exactly as it was, for example, Edouard Manet painted a French courtesan ‘Olympia’ bold, brash and unashamed. This was the first time that artists broke from traditional standards. Impressionism followed where artists painted impressions of the actual subjects. What they portrayed is a distinction between what they see and that which the brain processes, bringing out the impact of scientific knowledge on art. From this period, the ‘isms’ poured forth, which involved post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism. Artists utilized every opportunity to break loose from commonly held teachings and techniques. Modernism had well renowned and prolific artists like Salvador Dali, Pablo Picasso, George Seurat and Marcel Duchamp just but to mention a few. Modernism encompassed nearly the whole of 20th century art; it is now easy to understand why modernism is a significant point of discussion by art critics and historians. Well, viewing modernism from a different angle, it’s not all about painting. There are other disciplines as Music, philosophy, literature and sculpture, the list is long.

The Epic of Gilgamesh Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

The Epic of Gilgamesh - Essay Example When he finds this immortal man, Gilgamesh is given two chances at immortality but fails in both quests noticing in his return to Uruk that mortal men have found their own means of immortality through works of art and civilization. As the summary proves, Tablet's XI main theme is human concern on mortality and immortality. Human search of immortality, a theme that has impregnated thousands literary works, is shown in the Tablet through its imagery. As for example, the exhaustive description of Uruk's wall. In this description of Uruk's walls, Gilgamesh shows his audience the strength of the same by pointing the quality materials used to make it. He also focus on its age by referring to ancient characters like the Seven Sages, an idea further emphasized by the repetitions found in this excerpt, which also appears word by word in Tablet I. This strong wall symbolizes man's victory over time and death thus leading mortal people to a kind of immortality achieved through their surviving works (art and civilization). The secondary theme, survival, is closely related with immortality, as men fight against nature/gods (symbolized by the storm) to prevent their own death. This is easily seen in the imagery of the storm described in Utanapishtim flashback story of the Flood. In spite of the fury of gods' storm (or nature in other cases), Utanapishtim and his men manage to survive thus breaking their fate of mortality. For having won their fight against the Flood, those men are rewarded with immortality, only preserved to gods or heroes. Finally, also related with the main theme of immortality by opposition, appears the theme of death. Death, personified, is an evil character that prevents Gilgamesh to fulfil his destiny; death prosecutes him and is always with him, as is shown in this hyperbole. "The Snatcher has taken hold of my flesh, in my bedroom Death wells, and wherever I set foot there too is Death!" (257-59, Tablet XI, The Epic of Gilgamesh) Death is shown as an evil character who is not easily deceived as it happens with Gilgamesh that fails his both chances at immortality, first by falling asleep and second by losing the opportunity to become young again. So in the case of Gilgamesh, death wins the battle as he finally succumbs to its clutches. But he and his people will be always remembered by the strong wall that have constructed around the city. However, the literary devices are not only used in relation with the themes but also with other purposes such as memorization,

Executive Summaries of Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Executive Summaries of Article - Essay Example Items that have to be shown in investing activity are shown as operating activity. Moreover, when such items are rectified for classification, the re-statement of the figures is not done (Daniel, Susan, & Dana, 2007). Controls should be so efficient that they are capturing the correct classification of the items each year. Such misclassifications mislead the users of the statement of cash flows. Secondly, when classifications are done, they should be re-stated as per the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Since, this re-statement is not being done, the ratio of current years and that of comparatives are also being distorted. Such inconsistency in the ratios affects the decision making of the investors. 1. Untrained Staff: There is untrained staff, which is not capable of preparing Ha cash flow. The staff is not technically sound due to lack of knowledge and training. Many a times the staff is not even capable of adjusting the profit for non-cash items. Qualified and experienced staff should be hired to remove these errors. 2. Lack of Adequate Review: It is observed that the senior management does not appropriately review the statement of cash flows. There are some complex items in the cash flow, which come in the form of balancing figures such as taxes paid. These figures are difficult to be calculated. Junior staff may manipulate such figures to balance the cash flow statement. Such manipulation could be rectified at initial stage if reviews are done in detail. 3. Misclassification of Balance Sheet items: It is observed that the balance sheet items are not classified appropriately. The items of short-term investments such as securities, which are highly liquid in nature, are classified as a cash equivalent. Such misclassification eradicates the item from investing items in the cash flow. 4. Consolidation weaknesses: The consolidation process is a complex process that

Race to the Top Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Race to the Top - Research Paper Example The assessment was supposed to be common for everyone throughout the state for purposes of uniformity. Disabled students were considered so they could also participate in the program. Those with the language barrier especially in English were given special accommodations. The program was meant to measure certain standards that previous programs could not. The main aim was to make scoring uniform so that colleges could use the same results for placement purposes. The discussions of the pros and cons of that program are meant to help us decide on whether the program was effective or not. Cons The first issue is that the program applies the use of multiple-choice questions in their assessment. In as much as such kind of questions reduce subjectivity when marking and scoring, they have been shown to narrow the curriculum. In addition to this, scanty reading and guesswork is highly used when answering such questions leading to untrue scores. It is impossible to tell what a student knows a nd what concepts were never understood. There was the introduction of performance tests in the 1990’s to help improve on the programs. These kinds of assessment included doing practical work, science experiments and extended essays, which enabled the student to apply theory into practice. This was to be seen as a success, but a problem arose in reliability of the scores; score results in some places could not be used to make any important inference. The tests were made of fewer questions and this meant that the area covered was not as extensive as any test should. The seriousness of the validity of performance tests was so vast that by 2002, only a few such kind of tests were given. Seeing all these disadvantages, the federal funding decided increase the number of tests and instead use a range different types of assessments. Nevertheless, this would increase the total cost of developing the tests and even scoring. It was also seen that teachers are forced to pull out of schoo l to score the tests and the inability of such teachers to engage in other activities that foster professional development. Teachers are bound to learn more during their first scoring exercise but this would change over time because of the teacher’s knowledge that scores are compared. In as much as there is professional improvement in instructions given to class, it is very hard for a teacher to change instructions that will cater for the unique needs of each student. In cases where a student was required to express what they know like in performance tests, language and inability to write essays was a hindrance to the accomplishment of many students. Apparently, only valid test scores can be used to make inferences, valid tests are those that give the same result if issued to the same group for a second time. However, such scores cannot be used to test teacher and principal quality because they do not directly do so. This may seem like very small areas but in terms of test re liability and validity, a problem in a small area is bound to make the whole test insignificant. Pros In order to know if an assessment system works, it is important to subject it to rigorous effectiveness exercises. Also for validity, it is important to make tests uniform and to standardize the conditions under which every test is given (Dietel 4). This kind of system enabled educators to perform the two exercises

(the topic of your choice) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

(the topic of your choice) - Essay Example This is a complex term which takes on a variety of implications, but can be most accurately understood as a story blending magical elements with an otherwise realistic narrative. Through an examination of Marquez’ ‘A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings,’ this essay contextualizes this understanding of magic realism. One recognizes that Marquez fuses magical and realistic elements into this text from the very opening sections. In this way, Marquez begins the narrative through a number of realistic descriptive patterns, before implementing a magical element in his description of the old man. In this way Marquez writes, â€Å"He had to go very close to see that it was an old man, a very old man, lying face down in the mud, who, in spite of his tremendous efforts, couldn't get up, impeded by his enormous wings† (Marquez). In this way, Marquez situates an element of magical realism at the story’s very core through the characterization of the titular characte r. A notable aspect of the old man is the way that the other characters interact with this man. Marquez indicates that at first they express astonishment at his condition, but then come to feel comfortable around him. Rather than simply recognizing the man as an individual with wings, they attempt to use their best worldly reasoning to make sense of the situation. As such, the man is determined to be an angel. It seems then that an aspect of magical realism is that the magical elements retain a slight dissonance from the realistic perspectives of the rest of the narrative. As the story progresses, Marquez seamlessly interweaves other magical realist elements into the plot. It is not long before a carnival emerges wherein on-lookers revel at the man. During this period, a man with bat wings flies overhead, but nobody pays attention to him because he does not have angel wings. Later in the story, a woman who has changed into a spider appears. Because of the tragic components of this w oman’s story, as well as her cheaper admission price, she quickly dwarfs the old man in terms of attention. In this instance, Marquez is making a further ironic statement on the nature of the magical elements; namely, it is the shock of the new that has intrigued the crowd, not so much the ‘magical’ component itself. Again, one witnesses that while the magic element is a major aspect of this literary technique, it is the realistic reaction to these magical elements which more fully encapsulates the use of magical realism as a literary technique. Another aspect of magical realism appears to be the gradual integration of the magical element into the real world. In terms of the old man, this is witnessed as he becomes accepted by Pelayo and Elisenda. This acceptance then is extended to the villagers, as they tire of his act. Finally, Marquez depicts the man as physiologically integrating into the fabric of human existence. Referring to the doctor’s perception of the man’s wings, Marquez writes, â€Å"They seemed so natural on that completely human organism that he couldn't understand why other men didn't have them too† (Marquez). In this section, Marquez additionally describes the old man in human terms, with the dragging of the wing’s potentially representing a metaphor of the old man’s life. While the angel flies away at the end, it seems that this can be a further metaphor on death. In conclusion, this essay has examined Gabriel Garcia Marquez ‘

Race to the Top Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Race to the Top - Research Paper Example The assessment was supposed to be common for everyone throughout the state for purposes of uniformity. Disabled students were considered so they could also participate in the program. Those with the language barrier especially in English were given special accommodations. The program was meant to measure certain standards that previous programs could not. The main aim was to make scoring uniform so that colleges could use the same results for placement purposes. The discussions of the pros and cons of that program are meant to help us decide on whether the program was effective or not. Cons The first issue is that the program applies the use of multiple-choice questions in their assessment. In as much as such kind of questions reduce subjectivity when marking and scoring, they have been shown to narrow the curriculum. In addition to this, scanty reading and guesswork is highly used when answering such questions leading to untrue scores. It is impossible to tell what a student knows a nd what concepts were never understood. There was the introduction of performance tests in the 1990’s to help improve on the programs. These kinds of assessment included doing practical work, science experiments and extended essays, which enabled the student to apply theory into practice. This was to be seen as a success, but a problem arose in reliability of the scores; score results in some places could not be used to make any important inference. The tests were made of fewer questions and this meant that the area covered was not as extensive as any test should. The seriousness of the validity of performance tests was so vast that by 2002, only a few such kind of tests were given. Seeing all these disadvantages, the federal funding decided increase the number of tests and instead use a range different types of assessments. Nevertheless, this would increase the total cost of developing the tests and even scoring. It was also seen that teachers are forced to pull out of schoo l to score the tests and the inability of such teachers to engage in other activities that foster professional development. Teachers are bound to learn more during their first scoring exercise but this would change over time because of the teacher’s knowledge that scores are compared. In as much as there is professional improvement in instructions given to class, it is very hard for a teacher to change instructions that will cater for the unique needs of each student. In cases where a student was required to express what they know like in performance tests, language and inability to write essays was a hindrance to the accomplishment of many students. Apparently, only valid test scores can be used to make inferences, valid tests are those that give the same result if issued to the same group for a second time. However, such scores cannot be used to test teacher and principal quality because they do not directly do so. This may seem like very small areas but in terms of test re liability and validity, a problem in a small area is bound to make the whole test insignificant. Pros In order to know if an assessment system works, it is important to subject it to rigorous effectiveness exercises. Also for validity, it is important to make tests uniform and to standardize the conditions under which every test is given (Dietel 4). This kind of system enabled educators to perform the two exercises

Is CEO Pay really Inefficient If so, propose a mechanism to improve Essay

Is CEO Pay really Inefficient If so, propose a mechanism to improve efficiency - Essay Example The inefficiency in CEO’s pay arises because it is very difficult to quantify the productivity of the company and its limit with respect to a certain individual. According to Robert (1995) â€Å"Although much of the decision-making power resides with the CEO, the research and background analysis reports are not made by him. Hence a venture that incurs losses upon the company may not have been caused due a bad decision made by the CEO but rather incomplete or inaccurate information provided to him. These are exemplary scenarios that have more theoretical than practical basis. â€Å" (Robert A. G. Monks, Nell Minow 1995) In today’s world where most business ventures are based solely on the situation in the relevant markets, employee wages are no exception. The general pay of a CEO in competitors would play a large part in deciding the payment package of a company’s CEO.The rest of the essay will be divided into four sections the first three will discuss the vario us aspects of payment while the last would be the concluding statement. Section one will view the entire payment package of a CEO and its implications. These have a strong basis in market evaluation and the integration of the CEO’s position in the company. Section two will discuss the Agency theory. This theory outlines the principal-agent relationship existing between the shareholders and the CEO and its impact on efficient pay. This relationship is both contractually binding and ethical in nature where the extent of the Agent’s authority to bind the company in a contract is deduced by the power given to him by the Principal.. Section three will reflect on the opposing theories of Rent-extraction and the efficient market hypothesis, while both valid in nature, reflects two different sides of an employment contract. Section one: Most CEOs are given the title of either president or CEO. This is a very connotation in the text of CEOs. It is widely used world over. It cou ld mean that the title holders also includes the directors which are present on the board of directors. On the other hand it could also mean the chief operating officer. When compared to the CEO, the president’s central focus is daily operations. CEO, on the other hand is more of a visionary. He projects the future of the company and determines the direction that the company takes. Thus at times, the titles of both president and CEO are used interchangeably to emphasize on the roles that both these title holders play. The increase in pay of a CEO has been six times more than the average wages paid to employees in the last thirty years. The payment package may be seen as inefficient and problematic. An internal sensitivity-analysis of firms indicates that the proportion of loss suffered by the manager when the firm suffers a loss is very small. This amount is greater for small or medium-sized firms as the size of the business increases the loss in pay of the manager decreases when the company suffers a setback. For example, it has been estimated that in a large firm a loss of $1000 by the company only passes on a loss of $1 to the manager who in fact

Teen Pregnancy in The Media Essay Example for Free

Teen Pregnancy in The Media Essay Understanding the theories of persuasion, motivation, and influence will put you in life’s driver’s seat. Why? Because everything you want, or will want, in life comes from these three simple concepts. The power of persuasion is of extraordinary and critical importance in today’s world. Nearly every human encounter includes an attempt to gain influence or to persuade others to our way of thinking. Regardless of age, profession, religion, or philosophical beliefs, people are always trying to persuade each other. One’s ability to persuade meant great social prestige in the ancient Greek world. It was Aristotle who first introduced persuasion as a skill that could be learned. The first book ever written on persuasion was his The Art of Rhetoric. Aristotle taught that rhetoric was an art form that could be approached systematically by a formula for all persuasive attempts. Aristotle’s most famous contribution to persuasion was his three means of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos. He argued that the most effective persuasive attempts contain all three concepts. I apply these three concepts daily, whether I am communicating with someone or if I am watching TV or listening to the radio. The media is notorious for using ethos, pathos, and logos when trying to persuade viewers to either buy something or to simply watch a new show. One show in particular that I was persuaded to watch is MTV’s 16 and Pregnant. In this project I will talk about how shows like 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom apply Aristotle’s concepts of ethos, pathos, and logos in an attempt to decrease teen pregnancy in America. I remember when I was in high school and Jamie Lynn Spears’ pregnancy was a lead story in the news. Her pregnancy was such a big deal because she was only 16 at the time and on top of that her sister was a pop star. I remember hearing so many negative comments about her, which I found dramatic because where I come from I saw pregnant teens often. In fact, I’m the product of a teenage pregnancy. Ever since Jamie Lynn Spears’ pregnancy went public I have always been interested in the teen pregnancy debate on whether or not teen pregnancy should be made public. With that being said, MTV’s shows 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom have been called one of the best public service campaigns to prevent teen pregnancy. I decided to write about the influence of 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom on societal views and trends, particularly because there’s an important ongoing public debate over whether or not these shows are glamorizing young motherhood. The cast members, as well as many high school girls in America, reject the idea that any peer would or should be envious of a teen mom’s daily struggles, but there are those parents and teachers who worry that the girls’ presence in tabloids will encourage copycatting. MTV uses the art of persuasion to reach out to their audience. The show tries to emphasize that there is nothing glamorous about missing the prom to stay home with a newborn baby or sacrificing a high school education to raise a child. Research by the National Campaign found that among teens that watch 16 and Pregnant, 82 percent believe that show helps teens better understand the challenges of teen pregnancy and parenthood and how to avoid it. Although the National Campaign seems to be a reliable source, I still question whether or not this show is effectively persuading our nation. The main research questions for this project are â€Å"How do shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade viewers not to get pregnant as teens? † I also want to research if these strategies effective at persuading teens and young adults, or do these shows glamorize teen pregnancy. I will analyze the show from a rhetorical perspective. I want to know if MTV producers are in fact glamorizing teen pregnancy or are they using their credibility to create awareness. MTV has a long history taking sexual health issues head-on through campaigns such as documentary shows. These shows are well put together, logical, and they use authentic footage to engage pathos in campaigns. I plan on answering the questions I have about this national topic by conducting a survey and researching other national surveys that have been done. I would like to conduct a survey amongst my peers on campus to collect data to see if I have similar results as the National Campaign. I also plan on looking at scholarly journals written by high school teachers and college professors. High school teachers are in contact with these students every day and I feel that their opinions and critiques are credible. I know that conducting my own survey and reviewing scholarly journals will help guide me to answering the research questions that I have. Many of us wonder why we behave in the way we do, or why we say the things we do. Although many of us attribute our beliefs and ideas to parental or peer influence, the most significant models and mentors for most adolescents as they develop may, in fact, be characters or â€Å"celebreality† depicted through popular television programs. Throughout our youth, we are frequently exposed to television. We watch it for entertainment, education, or simply to alleviate boredom. As we watch, we internalize many of its messages and images and learn from what we see. Many young children dress up and act out roles of their favorite Disney characters. However, there are young children now who want to play the roles of teen moms from MTV’s Teen Mom show. I recently witnessed my two younger cousins, ages nine and eleven, â€Å"act† like they were teen moms by putting to small pillows in their shirts and proceeded to call each other â€Å"Maci† and â€Å"Farrah†. When They initially put the pillows in their shirts, I had no idea what they were doing, however, when they called each other those names, I immediately knew what they were doing. It was so unexpected and caught me off guard, and made me question: first, why the heck are these babies watching Teen Mom; And secondly, is this how young girls are â€Å"playing† now? Although some may see this as simple playtime, how much of the messages from television remain with children as they grow? Television shows such as Teen Mom or 16 and Pregnant depict the â€Å"real† life, sometimes concluding with the all too familiar, â€Å"happily ever after. † Do these shows set unattainable real life expectations for the viewer? Such television shows highlight moments of interest, leaving out intricate details regarding emotions and relationships between the teen moms and their situation. MTV edits theses shows to depict what they want the audience to see and believe what is going on, but everything is not shown. The episodes are 30 minutes long, and life is much more complex and elaborate. Media representations of life are confusing for many viewers. When we observe television stars behaving in a particular way, we assume that comparable actions in our lives will result in similar consequences. The Neilson Company reported that television consumption in the United States in the 2008- 2009 season reached an all time high. Americans spend approximately four hours and 49 minutes watching television every day (Media Literacy Clearinghouse, 2009). Spending this much time watching television is bound to affect us. When television programs begin to impact our behaviors more deeply does the influence of our parents or teachers, it is time to take a deeper look into this phenomenon and discover its real implications. Throughout this study, I will discuss the use of persuasion in television shows such as Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant. This study will focus on the effects of ethos, pathos, and logos used by MTV, and how their persuasion is affecting today’s youth by airing these programs. In this section I am going to outline the theories guiding my questions. y. Cultivation Analysis Theory examines the relationship between extent of television viewing and conception of reality. The theory is based on work developed by George Gerbner which began in the 1970’s. The more people see false representations of life and relationships on television, the more they accept it as reality. Viewers will consequently believe in a greater incidence of the overrepresented portrayals, which will subsequently affect their behavior (Eisend, 2006). Cultivation theory explains the importance of viewers’ thoughtful examination of media messages before accepting them as truth. The influence of media representations of reality is powerful in the development of self image and world understanding. In relation to the growing number of teen pregnancy, recent studies show that the amount of sexual content on television has been considerable and increasing over the years (Eyal Finnerty, 2009). Television and media messages contribute significantly to individuals’ thoughts and behaviors. It comes as no surprise to see that, â€Å"research has established that exposure to sexual content in entertainment programming can contribute to a young person’s sexual socialization and that adolescents turn to magazines and television as central sources of information about sex and contraception† (Eyal Finnerty, 2009). These studies have discovered that sexual behavior depicted on television typically occurs between unmarried individuals and that many of the risks related to this behavior ( like unplanned pregnancy) are rarely seen as consequences (Eyal Finnerty, 2009). As stated previously, when these actions are rewarded or justified (on shows such as Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant), individuals, specifically teens, will be more likely to engage in the behavior themselves. One of the most generally accepted theories used to explain the influence of media on individuals is social cognitive theory. Although there is some debate regarding the full influence of the media on viewers, it is known that humans learn from observation. According to Albert Bandura, things people experience in their environments affect their behavior and values. When they see behavior that is rewarded or praised, they are likely to exhibit the behavior themselves through operant learning (Bandura, 1994). It has been questioned repeatedly if MTV’s shows Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant glamorize teen pregnancy or are they using persuasive techniques to influence young viewers to make safe sex decisions. However, Bandura suggests that if we witness a particular behavior on television, we are likely to imitate that behavior in our own lives. When teens watch these television shows, they are influenced to either imitate the behavior or learn from it. MTV’s purpose of 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom is to persuade young viewers that teen pregnancy is not a fairytale life, but yet MTV shows an edited version of these pregnant teens’ daily life. After the teens’ stories are told on 16 and Pregnant, their lives are followed on Teen Mom where they usually have a house, a car, and what teens want the most: freedom. When teenagers watch this show, yes they are seeing some hardships of being a parent at a young age, but they are also seeing that the teens on the show are â€Å"grown† and are making it with a child more than struggling. However, the younger viewers are oblivious to fact that these teens are getting paid from being on the show, and that is the money that they are using to live more comfortable on Teen Mom than they were on 16 and Pregnant. Older teens realize that these girls on television are being paid, so they can perceive getting pregnant as a teen and being on one of these shows as an outlet to get money, disregarding the fact that they will have a child. Television has the ability to model the beliefs of individuals due to the situations and characters’ believed similarities to real life. Through the imitation of and identification with people on television, viewers exhibit behavior similar to the characters in their own lives. While watching television programs, viewers learn about through social cognition. Another theory that aims to describe the effect of media on young viewers is the early window theory. This theory examines how children are allowed to see the world and its various aspects before they possess the skill set to adequately understand and act in it. According to this theory, children learn at early ages about gender roles and their function within society. Not only are children exposed to various portrayals of reality, but these portrayals can â€Å"encourage expectations of others Portrayals in television and other media of highly attractive persons may encourage dissatisfaction [with] or lowered evaluations of attractiveness of those of the pertinent sex in real life† (Comstock, 1991). These portrayals can influence the behavior of children regarding personal body image and the image of others’ bodies as well. The early window seeks to explain the implications of television on the lives of youthful viewers. In relation to the narrative I shared about my two younger cousins, children may not normally be exposed to certain experiences or emotions, but because of television during the time of growth, children are shown elements of reality meant for their later years. My cousins know what it means to be pregnant, a baby is inside of a woman’s stomach. How the baby got there is still questionable to them. However, they are blind to the controversy about to teen pregnancy. In their eyes, an seventeen or eighteen year old is grown, which why they did not understand why I told them to stop mocking Maci and Farrah. During their youth, they are exposed to television shows like Teen Mom and 16 and pregnant, and they are exposed to adult situations and emotions that no child or teenager should have to witness, or better yet understand, at an early age. Little research has been conducted to better understand how media might also have positive effects by, for example, decreasing risky sexual behavior and promoting healthier decisions among teens. Given that teens’ use of media has increased over the past decade, and that the amount of sexual content in the media has also increased, it is reasonable to explore whether Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant might be used to help prevent teen pregnancy. My research question asks, how do shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use ethos, pathos and logos to persuade viewers not to get pregnant as teens? I conducted a survey to evaluate if these strategies, like MTV shows, are effective at persuading teens and young adults. My survey was composed of 10 questions. Five out of the 10 questions were context questions, and five questions were demographic questions. A total of 10 teens participated and completed the survey. The average age of the participants was 15. 6 years, ranging from 13 to 18 years old. All of the participants were female (100%). Five of the participants were Caucasian and five were African American. Six out of the ten of the participants reported having had sex. Two of the participants are teenage mothers. My survey was designed to learn more about how watching and discussing episodes of Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant influences teens’ perceptions of getting pregnant and becoming a parent at a young age. My results also shed light on teens’ perceptions of the shows Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant, in particular, and their views about how media might influence teens’ decisions about sex more generally. Television and other media alone do not cause, and cannot prevent, teen pregnancy. However, entertainment media can reach millions of teens with important messages about teen pregnancy. It is necessary to consider that there is a distinction between this survey I conducted, which attempts to understand teens’ views about teen pregnancy as a result of watching MTV’s Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant—versus an impact evaluation of a prevention program whose sole purpose is to reduce teen pregnancy. While evidence based teen pregnancy prevention programs are guided by specific theories and have the explicit goal of changing behavior to reduce risk of teen pregnancy, television shows such as Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant are created for entertainment with the goal of attracting viewers and keeping them engaged. The teens in this study enjoyed watching and discussing the 16 and Pregnant episodes and thought that the show was realistic. Neither the boys nor girls who watched the episodes wanted to imitate the teens in the episodes they watched. In fact, nearly all of my teen participants (93%) that watched the show agreed (53% strongly agreed) with the statement: â€Å"I learned that teen parenthood is harder than I imagined from these episodes. † When asked if these shows glamorized teen pregnancy five (50%) of my participants strongly disagreed, two (20%) disagreed, and three (30%) selected neutral. As I stated before, some of society believe that these shows â€Å"glamorizes† teen pregnancy, the findings from this survey show my teen participants do not share that view. In addition, teens that saw and discussed the episodes reported that they enjoyed watching and talking about the show and that they learned something new from doing so. The more they liked it, the more likely they were to have negative views about teen pregnancy. Teens were eager to recommend the show to others; 90% of participants agreed (60% of those strongly agreed) with the statement: â€Å"I think all teenagers should watch a show like this. † Many (80%) said they would recommend that friends participate in the discussion, too. The results of this survey support the idea that teens are interested in watching and discussing reality television shows about teen pregnancy, and that messages about the realities of teen pregnancy and parenting in these shows can influence teens’ attitudes about the challenges of teen parenthood. Given the popularity of these shows, their messages clearly reach a large number of teens. Although I collected plenty of useful data, there were some limitations to my survey. First, I only surveyed female participants. It would have been interesting to have male opinions with this survey to analyze if they shared the same attitudes about these shows as my female participants did. MTV is a universal television station that has a female and male demographic. Unlike Lifetime and Oxygen, channels that have a majority of female viewers, MTV targets male and female viewers and it could be likely that many males watch this show because they enjoy watching MTV in general. Second, my survey only consisted of teenage participants. Initially, I wanted to survey teenagers and high school teachers. High school teachers are in contact with teens everyday and would have a credible opinion. However, I decided to just ask teenagers because I wanted to keep the focus on them. This topic as a whole is about teenage pregnancy so I wanted to know how teenagers felt about these shows and if they thought these shows glamorized teen pregnancy. The last limitation is that my survey questions did not really discuss what teens learned and could have been better. My survey asked questions that produced answers about their attitudes toward the show, but it did not ask questions in regards to what they specifically learned. I asked my participants if they felt the show glamorized teen pregnancy, however my survey was constructed on a Likert-Type Scale so they only had the option of on selecting one of the following: â€Å"Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree. † It would have been a good idea to leave that question open and ask them to explain their answer that way I could have collected data about what they learned specifically and why exactly they thought that these shows did or did not glamorize teen pregnancy. Initially I hypothesized that these shows glamorize teen pregnancy, and the shows would increase teens’ desire to want to become pregnant because these shows edit out some of the struggles. However, I seem to be wrong based on my survey results. Nearly all of my participants either have watched these shows, and a little over half of them said they learned that parenthood is harder than they thought after watching these shows. When presented with the statement that the shows glamorize teen pregnancy seven out of my ten participants disagreed, and the other three participants selected the neutral choice. That concludes that more than half of my participants have opposing views from what I hypothesized. Although three of the participants chose â€Å"neutral† as their answer they did not fully agree or disagree with the statement. Therefore, a majority of the participants proved my hypothesis to be wrong. My hypothesis may have been incorrect, but my research question about how do shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant uses ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade viewers still remains. Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant, allow teens to see what the responsibility of having a baby is. It shows the lives of four girls who got pregnant at age 16. Many of them struggle not only with their pregnancy, but also with the acceptance of the parents or even their own boyfriend. The style and the language they use are very realistic making the series even more interesting to teens these days. The show gets its point of view out by making the viewers, mostly teen girls, feel what the girls in the show are feeling, using ethos, pathos and logos very well. Ethos means to convince an audience of the speaker’s credibility or character. Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use ethos to show the young audience that the show is a credible source and is worth listening too. For example, the show often takes place in a hospital, obviously, and doctors are shown giving the teen parents medical advice and expertise. This establishes credibility to the viewers because doctors are associated with being smart which would make them credible, theoretically. I noticed from watching the shows that they will introduce the doctors and what hospital the doctors practice at. I feel like they present where the doctor practices to make the situations even more credible. Ethos can be developed by choosing language that is appropriate for the audience and topic (also means choosing proper level of vocabulary), sounding fair or unbiased, introducing expertise, and by using correct grammar. The doctors use simple language for the teen moms and viewers to understand, they also tell it â€Å"straight like it is† to the young parents about any risks or complications (sounding unbiased and fair), and they also speak articulately and use correct grammar, all to contribute credibility and appeal to the audience. Once these shows prove their credibility, the audience is more likely to develop an emotional connection to the girls on these shows. Pathos means to persuade an audience by appealing to their emotions. Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use pathos to evoke sympathy from an audience; to get them to feel what the girls on the show feel. A common use of pathos would be to draw pity from an audience. For example, one of the teens on this show, Farrah, lost her boyfriend in a crash while she was pregnant. Farrah is portrayed on the show as the girl struggling emotionally because her baby’s father is not there to support her during her pregnancy like the other girls on the show. Farrah has her family that supports her, but she doesn’t have her boyfriend. The death of her boyfriend is the emotional appeal to connect with the young audience. Teens value their boyfriends, sometimes a little more than their families at that age. So when young viewers see that she doesn’t have her boyfriend around anymore, they feel sad and pity her because dealing with a boyfriend’s death as a teen is just as eye opening as dealing with pregnancy at an early age. The show edits Farrah’s episodes to really emphasize the fact that she has to raise her daughter on her own, but receives a lot of support from her family. Another use of pathos would be to inspire anger from an audience, perhaps in order to prompt action. Pathos is the Greek word for both â€Å"suffering† and â€Å"experience. † I saw a lot of this use of pathos in Caitlyn’s episodes. Caitlyn and her boyfriend decided to place their daughter up for adoption. They are the only couple on the show to do this. The show edits Caitlyn’s episodes to depict her experience of carrying her baby, selecting an adopted family, giving birth, and the emotional suffering she has after she gives her baby away. Although Caitlyn’s experience and suffering would appeal to the audience’s emotions to feel pity, I can also see how it could inspire anger from the audience. There is no doubt in my mind that there are some teens that have negative views about adoption because many teens don’t understand adoption and only think of it as â€Å"giving your baby away to strangers. † However, there may be some teens that have morals and religious beliefs that make them negatively view adoption. Needless to say, Caitlyn giving her baby away could spark questions amongst some young viewers like, â€Å"Why would she give her baby away I would never do that! † Many of times, an ill-educated mind would ask questions like this because they are unaware of statistics and logical reasoning to certain actions. Logos means to convince an audience by use of logic or reason. To use logos would be to cite facts and statistics, historical and literal analogies, and citing certain authorities on a subject. In Caitlyn’s case, MTV allows her to share on the show why she decided to give her daughter up for adoption. She explains that she is living in an unstable household that she does not want her daughter to grow up in. After each episode, MTV also provides statistics on teenage pregnancy in the United States, and how many teens follow through with the adoption option. I also observed while watching 16 and Pregnant that MTV makes a conscious effort to define terminology on the screen for the viewers. Some of the teens on the show will have an epidural during their delivery or their child would be born with jaundice, and terms like â€Å"epidural† and â€Å"jaundice† would appear on the screen with short, easy to read definitions. I’m not sure if MTV does this to scare teens or if they do this to inform them so they will have a better understanding of what is going on. Logos can be developed by using advanced and abstract language, citing facts (which is very important in my opinion), and by constructing logical arguments. According to Aristotle, rhetoric is the ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion. He described three types of rhetorical appeal: ethos, pathos, and logos. In order for shows like 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom to be effective strategies to decrease teen pregnancy, MTV producers needed to understand these three terms. Judging by my survey results, these producers are knowledgeable and understand that the proper use of ethos, pathos and logos is necessary. The media is notorious for using ethos, pathos, and logos when trying to persuade viewers to either buy something or to simply watch a new show. I was persuaded to watch MTV’s Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant when I was in high school. I simply wanted to know more about the persuasive appeals these shows used and if these shows glamorized teen pregnancy. This project allowed me to research Aristotle’s concept of ethos, pathos, and logos, and how these shows are effective strategies to persuade young viewers not to become pregnant. My main research questions for this research project was â€Å"How do shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant use ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade viewers not to get pregnant? † And â€Å"Are these shows effective strategies for persuading teens and young adults? † I hypothesized that these shows glamorize teen pregnancy, and I wanted to further my research to learn more about this controversial topic. I initially planned on constructing a survey and reviewing scholarly journals regarding theories to help guide me to answering my research questions. I began my research by identifying theories that would help me approach this topic. I created my theoretical framework using three theories that I selected based on their ideologies of the media’s influence on behaviors. Media representations of life are confusing for many viewers. When we observe television stars behaving in a particular way, we assume that comparable actions in our lives will result in similar consequences. With that being said, my theoretical framework focused on Cultivation Analysis, Social Cognitive Theory, and the Early Window Theory. Cultivation Analysis Theory examines the relationship between extent of television viewing and conception of reality. In relation to the growing number of teen pregnancies, recent studies show that the amount of sexual content on television has been considerable and increasing over the years (Eyal Finnerty, 2009). Television and media messages contribute significantly to individuals’ thoughts and behaviors. I was able to apply this theory to my research because I wanted to make a logical argument that when teens see these young moms on TV living a fancy life (owning a house, owning a car, partying, dating, etc. ) that they would believe that they could have a similar life. This theory allowed me to show that teens could easily misinterpret the scripted situations happening on Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant as a reality. I also learned that one of the most generally accepted theories used to explain the influence of media on individuals is Social Cognitive Theory. According to Albert Bandura, when people see behavior that is rewarded or praised, they are likely to exhibit the behavior themselves through operant learning. I selected this theory to prove my hypothesis that if young viewers of these shows watched these girls develop a fancy life from 16 and Pregnant to Teen Mom then they would view this as the girls being praised and would be more likely to imitate behaviors to receive these rewards, which in this case would require pregnancy in order to receive the same â€Å"praise†. Although there is some debate regarding the full influence of the media on viewers, it is known that humans learn from observation. This theory also provided insight to the possible results of my research question that asks how these shows use ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade young viewers. As stated, humans learn through observation, so being able to witness these teen parents’ experience on the show and to hear their stories has more potential to persuade them to get pregnant or not depending on how they observe the show. The last theory that I used for my theoretical framework was the Early Window Theory. According to this theory, children are allowed to see the world and its various aspects before they possess the skill set to adequately understand and act in it. I decided to use this theory as part of my framework because I wanted to analyze the effects these shows have in regards to exposing teenagers to â€Å"adult situations† (like pregnancy). Teenagers get to a certain point where they are curious about sex and have questions. That is normal. However, these shows are documentaries about young parents who are experiencing having a child out of wedlock and in some cases have complications with their birth or have to worry about going to court for child support. These documentaries are shown on MTV, which is a television channel geared towards a young audience. This young audience is exposed to these documentaries about pregnancy, and if they watch them then they are given the opportunity to learn about an aspect of life that they should not be exposed to or worried about until they are older and are able to adequately understand it all. After developing my theoretical framework, I began to apply my methods for collecting data. I constructed a survey of ten questions. I surveyed ten female participants ranging in age from 13-18. I experienced limitations with my survey, like I only surveyed females and I only surveyed teenagers. The biggest limitation of my survey was that my questions were not the best. Based on my questions and the responses that I received I was unable to find out what exactly teens learned from the show. However, I did find out my teen participants’ attitudes towards these shows and how these shows influence their attitudes. My survey results also proved my hypothesis that these shows glamorize teen pregnancy to be wrong. More than half of my survey participants disagreed that these shows glamorize teen pregnancy. I was initially surprised by the data I received from the survey. However, after giving my results deep thought, I have concluded that my results make sense. Why would teens feel that the show glamorizes teen pregnancy? When I consider the ideas from my theoretical framework about how the media influences people’s conception of reality and that people learn through observation, I can safely assume that teens might believe that these girls on the show are living a normal life. Again, one of the downfalls of my survey is that I only surveyed teenage girls and my results reflected that. MTV shows the teen moms struggling sometimes, and other times they are living what seems to be a normal life. However, the struggle doesn’t out shine the normality. Although I did not receive the results I wanted, the results I did analyze made sense considering my theoretical research and the age and gender demographics of my survey participants. In conclusion, this project as a whole helped me understand the art of persuasion in relation to the media. Shows like Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant effectively use ethos, paths and logos to influence teens’ attitudes about pregnancy. My survey results reflect this effectiveness, and my teenage participants said they learned that parenthood is harder than they thought from watching these shows; and I agree. The girls on these shows are not ready to have babies. They go through a lot of pain and also they get to miss out on high school memories. Being a mom is not an easy job for anyone. Many teens have at risk pregnancies because the body is not developed to carry a baby. MTV produces persuasive appeals on Teen Mom and 16 and Pregnant to address certain facts and discuss how important it is for teens to understand the consequences of teen pregnancy. References Cosmstock, G. (1991). Television and the American Child. San Diego Academic. Bandura, A. (1994). Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication. Hillside: In J. Bryant and D. Zillman Gerbner, G. (1998). Cultivation Analysis: An Overview. Mass Communication Society, 175-194. Eisend, M. (2006). The influence of TV viewing on consumers’ body images and related consumption behavior. Springer Science + Business Media, 101-116 Eyal, K. , Finnerty, K. (2009). The Portrayal of Sexual Intercourse on Television: How, Who, and With What Consequence? Mass Communication and Society, 143-170. Media Literacy Clearinghouse. (2009). Media Use Statistics. Retrieved November 2009, from the Media Literacy Clearinghouse: http://www. frankwbaker. com/mediause. htm

Theory Of Reasoned Action

Theory Of Reasoned Action CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter will deals with survey of literature review in the area of online purchase intention and perceived risk and its determinants. This section will discuss the dependent, independent and mediating variables and the relationship among the variables that might influence consumer perceptions of perceived risk towards online purchase intention. Researcher was replicates the framework from the study Factors influencing consumer perceptions of brand trust online by Hong-Youl Ha, 2004 and The influence of prior experience and age on mature consumers perceptions and intentions of internet apparel shopping by Wi-Suk Kwon and Mijeong Noh, 2009. The reason to choose this framework are because, this framework seem like fit with Malaysian culture and tradition. Although researcher was replicate the framework but some changes were made, which is researcher will combine both of the frameworks into one new framework and will test the framework into different setting of place. 2.1 Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) To make some improvement for the past studies, researcher will apply the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) by (Fishbein, 1980) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) by Ajzen in 1991. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) by Fishbein, 1980 was developed to explain how a consumer leads to a certain buying behavior, this theory asserts that attitude toward buying and subjective norm are the antecedents of performed behavior. Two antecedents which are (attitude and subjective norm) influence the purchase behavior additively (Ha, 1998). Two important propositions underlying the theory of reasoned action offered by Lutz (1991) are the first one is to predict a purchase behavior, it is necessary to measure a persons attitude toward performing that specific behavior, not only the general attitude toward the object around which the purchasing behavior is. The second one is, in addition to the attitude toward the behavior, TRA includes a second determinant of overt behavior namely the subjective norm (SN). SN is intended to measure the social influences on a persons behavior such as family members or friends and colleagues expectations. Sometimes in some situations expectation o f relevant from others may be a major factor in ultimate behavioral performances and simply not under the attitudinal control of individuals. Another study Lada et al., 2009, claim that according to the TRA, a persons intention is a function of two basic determinants, which are one personal in nature and the other one is reflecting social influence. The personal factor is the individuals positive or negative evaluation when performing the behavior and this factor is termed attitude toward the behavior. The second determinant of intention is the persons perception of the social pressure put on him or her whether to perform or not to perform the behavior in question and this factor is termed subjective norm since it deals with perceived prescriptions, (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). According to Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), attitudes are a function of beliefs when someone believes that performing a given behavior will lead to mostly positive outcomes they may hold a favorable attitude toward performing the behavior, contrary a person who believes that performing the behavior will lead to mostly negative outcomes then they will hold an unfavorable attitude. The beliefs that underlie a persons attitude toward the behavior are termed behavioral beliefs while subjective norm is a function of beliefs that specify individuals or groups to think whether they should or should not perform the behavior and these beliefs which is underlying a persons subjective norm termed as a normative belief. A person who believes that most referents with whom they are motivated more to comply think, that they should perform the behavior will receive social pressure to do so (Lada et al., 2009). 2.2 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) The second theory is Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which is proposed by Ajzen in 1991 as an extension of the first theory discussed above which is theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein, 1980). (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), the TPB has been used by many researchers over the past 20 years and its shown to be able to predict a variety of intentions and behaviors perform by persons. According to Ajzen (1991), a persons action is determined by their behavioral intentions, which in turn are influenced by an attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms as discussed above. (Azjen, 1991), behavioral intentions are factors that capture how people are willing to try to perform a behavior, behavioral intention also the most influential predictor of behavior and its shown that in TPB constructs, intention was a better predictor of behavior. In the TPB, attitude toward the behavior is defined as ones positive or negative feelings about performing a specific behavior and determined through an assessment of ones beliefs regarding the consequences which is arising from ones behavior and an evaluation of the desirability of these consequences. 2.3 Conceptual Definition of Dependent Variable (Online Purchase Intention) It is best to start this study by explaining what an online purchase intention is it in order to give some idea and to dispel some common misconceptions that might occur. Purchase intention can be defined as a plan to purchase a particular goods or services in the future. Purchase intentions is the likelihood that a consumer will buy a particular product in which resulting from the interaction of his or her need for it, attitude towards it and perceptions of it and of course from the company itself which produces the products or services (J. Baker, 1998). This study using definition from (Azjen, 1991), behavioral intentions are factors that capture how people are willing to try to perform a behavior, behavioral intention also the most influential predictor of behavior, intention also was a better predictor of behavior. 2.4 Conceptual definition of Mediating Variable (Perceived Risk) Risks is a part of everyday life and always come as a routine in between us and exist when there is a less than 100 percent probability that things will turn out as someone expected will happen (Baeur, 1967). Risks are different for different persons, according to Martin and Camarero (2008), some people view risk as a their inability to value the quality of the product directly, lack of personal contact with the salesperson, the cost involve of learning on how to use the internet, cost switching different channels, security of payment and personal information. Whilst others, view risk as a (Stone and Gronhaug, 1993) degree of uncertainty about the outcome of an action which might carries the possibility of physical harm or damages. Manzano et al., 2008 offered six dimensions of perceived risk which are security risk, privacy risk, performance risk, time loss risk and social risk. Whilst Beardon and Mason, 1978 proposed different dimensions of perceived risk namely, financial risk, social risk, performance risk, psychological risk and physical risk. Although there are different kind of names or term used but the meaning is quiet same in a context of online shopping. Financial risk or security risk share a same meaning, it can be incurred when customers financial circumstances are damaged because of loss of money in cash or via credit card (March, 2006; Manzano et al., 2008). Social risks come through purchasing process that is perceived to be down-market (March, 2006). Littler and Melanthiou, 2006 found that social risk is concerned with the possibility of attracting unfavorable attention and response from purchasing a particular product. Consumer attitudes to the different methods of purchasing highly depend on their characteristics. Performance risk according to (Littler and Melanthiou, 2006) is concerned with how well the product perform relative to expectations for example, the lack of personal contact with a salesperson prevent the consumer from correctly evaluating the characteristics of the product which in turn decreasing confidence (Ba, 2001) among consumer. It is good if consumer can try out the product they will buy before they make a payment, (Gerrard and Cunningham, 2003) in their study reveal that the opportunity to conduct a trial before make payment provides the necessary confidence to consumers with high perceived performance risk. Whilst March 2006, implies that performance risk is occur when a product does not fulfill its functio n as expected especially services which may take risk time wasted in waiting. Time loss risk happen when consumer incur time costs from using online purchasing, the time of learning how to buy on a certain products, the time to wait for respond or the time for searching process( Littler and Melanthiou, 2006). Physical risk leading with purchases that might include products which are unsafe or will cause physical harm to the user or in services, allow customers to take risks whilst undertaking risky activity such as cycling (March, 2006). The last dimensions of perceived risk are psychological risk, which may be caused by consumers wearing unfashionable clothes, leading to the social risk of not fitting in and in turn will decrease confidence level among consumer. We do not always accurately perceive the threats of risks, accurately understanding and effectively eliminating or limiting risks are part of the survival and safety especially in online industry. Risk management must be an active part of facility marketing manager duties, risk should be well manage to control the financial and personal injury loss from sudden, unforeseen, unusual accident, and intentional torts (Ammon et al., 2004). In summary, for the purpose of this study, perceived risk can be summarize as a degree of uncertainty about the outcome from an action which carries the possibility of physical harm especially in financial and information fraud. Hence, this study assumes customer perceived risks are all the six dimensions discuss above which are, security risk, privacy risk, performance risk, time loss risk and social risk. 2.5 Conceptual definition of Independent Variables 2.5.1 Security Theres a various definition of security, Yoo and Donthu, 2001; Wolfinbarger and Gilly define security as to protecting the user from the risk of fraud and financial loss. According to (Milne et al., 2004), security often breaches of internet transmissions and databases enable the unauthorized use of consumers confidential information from third parties such as, name, address, password, social security and credit card numbers and, often result in identity theft. In reality, the prospect of privacy losses and information misuse in e-commerce settings may offset any convenience, time, and financial savings afforded to consumers thus by providing security for consumers will lead to customer satisfaction and in turn will decrease risk perception among consumers. Unfortunately, security breaches are occurring at a growing rate from time to time. Indeed, Miyazaki and Fernandez (2001) found that internet users highly concerns with regard to online shopping were privacy, system security breaches from third parties in which due to faulty technological security and security breaches in the form of fraudulent online retailer behavior. Security plays a vital role on customer trust and customer satisfaction, thus by providing security to consumers will lead to brand trust and would expect (Mayer et al., 1995) security decrease risk perceptions among consumers. On the other hand, Krisnahmurthy (2001) also found that consumers who experience positive security leads to improvements in the levels of familiarity on the web, accordingly security should affect brand trust as well as decrease risk perceptions. 2.3.2 Privacy Consumers patronizing an online service which requires the regular transmission and remote storage of confidential information may perceive elevated concerns regarding threats to the privacy of their personal and confidential information is very important during online transactions (Mauricio et al., 2007). Privacy refers to protection of personal details implicit or explicit agreement and not to sell or exchange the personal information gathered from consumers during transactions (Yoo and Donthu, 2001; Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2003). Another definition of privacy from (Parasuraman et al., 2005) is the claim of individualsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦to determine on when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others. (Caudill and Murphy, 2000; Sheehan and Hoy, 2000) proposed in their studies that consumer concern for information privacy is considered one of the most important issues nowadays. Fried (1998) was one of the earliest modern scholars to evaluate the notion of privacy; he argued that privacy is especially valuable since it allows people to conduct online transactions that result in trust, which would not be possible in the absence of privacy. Caudill and Murphy (2000) argued that both public and private information should be included in the debate regarding privacy since technologies today are making it increasingly easier to move private information into the public domain, which will cause consumers serious concerns regarding their private information. If the private information going into public meaning that, there is no privacy at all and this will cause distrust among customers and will lead to unsatisfied customers. 2.3.3 Brand Name Theres are various definition of brand, one of the definition is proposed by Bennett, 1988 claim that a brand is a name, term, sign, symbol, design, or any combination of these concepts, used to identify the goods and services of a seller. Keller (1998) states that brand name are one of the main factors facilitating the development of brand awareness or familiarity. The more specialized and reputable a brand name is in selling or recognizing the product or service, the more highly will its brand trust be perceived by consumers. Choosing a brand name for a consumer product or service is so critical that some writers argue it is one of the most important marketing management decisions that marketing manager should take highly considerations about choosing a brand name (Landler et al., 1991). A well chosen brand name can provide a customer with a symbolic meaning which assists in both the recognition of the product and the decision-making process (Herbig and Milewicz, 1993), it is also can produce a number of specific advantages including suggesting product benefits (McCarthy and Perault, 1990), contributing to brand identity, simplifying shopping, implying quality (McNeal and Zerren, 1981), evoking feelings of trust, confidence, security, strength, durability, speed, status and exclusivity and at the end of the day can decrease risk perceptions (Shimp, 1993). The more positively the persons perceived the brand, the higher the consumers brand awareness and loyalty, allowing the firm to command larger margins, higher market share, more inelastic consumer response to price increases, less vulnerability to competitive activity, increased marketing communications effectiveness, additional brand extension opportunities and other competitive advantages such as distribution leverage, customer satisfaction and as well as decrease risk perceptions (Keller, 1998). 2.3.4 Word of Mouth Word of mouth (WOM) plays a vital role in consumer behavior because Word of mouth (WOM) would affect purchase and intention to purchase and also experience of other consumers by conveying their consumption experience of others, namely the satisfaction or dissatisfaction after the purchasing process occur. WOM is commonly defined as informal communication about the characteristics of a business, services or a product which occurs between consumers (Westbrook, 1987). Most importantly, WOM also allows consumers to exert both informational and normative influences on the product or service evaluations and purchase intentions to fellow consumers (Bone, 1995; Ward and Reingen, 1990). According to Ha, 2004, WOM has been shown to influence awareness, expectations, perceptions, attitudes, behavioral intentions and behavior towards a product or services. Online shopping consumers will perceive higher purchase risk than that of the traditional shopping since the purchase occurs in virtual space rather than face to face transactions. They will accordingly rely more on WOM information to reduce uncertainty and purchase risk to make decisions (Kim and Song, 2010). According to Assael (1995), since online shopping has higher purchase risk than face to face interactions, (Richins and Shaffer, 1987) consumers carry out WOM action to obtain market information while making buying decision especially consumers who rely more on WOM as they perceive higher risks. Nowadays, there a growing body of evidence that the internet based opinion mechanism influence consumers when making a purchase such as blogs, social network (facebook, myspace, twitter) (Hong, 2006) and this is a new form of word of mouth communication and is known as electronic Word of Mouth (e-WOM). e-WOM is any positive or negative communication among the potential, current or former customers about a product, services or company that is available to public on the internet. Indeed, (Sen, 2008; Sen and Lerman, 2007) claimed that the impact of e-WOM is not as effective as the traditional face to- face word of mouth (WOM). In contrast, Steffes and Burgee (2009) found that the information gained from the e-WOM forum is more influential and beneficial in decision making process rather than speaking with friends in person (WOM). 2.3.5 Good Online Experience Often consumers tend to remember best the last experience they encounter (the recency effect): thus, one positive experience may be sufficient to alter perceptions of more than preceding negative experience, and vice versa (Ha, 2004). Experiences are sometimes confused with services, but experiences are as distinct from services as services also distinct from goods because experiences exist only in the mind of the individual. They are rich with emotional, physical, intellectual, or spiritual sensations created within the consumer during transactions (Kotler et al., 2005). According to Pine and Gilmore (1999), An experience occurs when a company intentionally uses services as the stage, and then goods as props to engage individual customers in a way to create a memorable event that consumer will remember best. The more satisfied the customer with the experience that the web sites offer, the more durable is the relationship among consumer and that particular brand (Buchanan and Gillies, 1990), and the relationship is highly depends on the customers experience, whether positive or negative experience. Experience plays a vital role in trust by making it possible to compare the realities of the firm with customer preconceived expectations. Ganesan (1994) goes further, and views experience as an antecedent to build brand trust among customers which in turn will lead to making purchasing. Usually customers expect Web sites to offer them not just a message, but a positive experience such as, security and privacy, ease of use, web site design and aesthetic elements and interactivity. The ease of use of the web sites is important factor which refers to the layout and design of the web site and the ease of making ones way around it, how the users perceives and interacts with the site, and how easy t o use it (Nielsen, 1999). While (Steur, 1992) covers the web sites design and aesthetic elements as a representation of the web site environments, associated with its formal characteristic such as graphics, colors, images, icons, animated sequences, videos and pop -ups which will influence customer to trust the web site as well as to proceed at the end action which is making purchasing. (Yoo and Donthu, 2001) claim that these elements has contribute to the atmosphere of the web site and are important in evaluating the web site experience. Thus, if the web sites offer all of this experience to customer will lead to customer satisfaction and build brand trust among customer thus will decrease customer risk perception. General speak in detailed, the fact that it easy to access and use the site, including the access speed and the overall guide design and layout, as well as the information provided; requirement fulfillment refers to whether the sites handling and goods delivery in a systematic way; system accessibility refers to whether the site has been technology based or still using a traditional based, or is vulnerable to attacks; and privacy, also known as security, refers to whether the site can keep the customers information secret and payments safe (Sheng and Liu, 2010) are experience that customer want in which we can called it positive experience will lead to customer satisfaction and purchase as well as to build brand trust. 2.3.6 Quality of Information There is various definition of information. Some writers make no distinction between data and information (Wang et al., 1998) while some writers see the differences as most crucial (Tozer, 1999). Information is logically derived from theories or principles, it is an artifact. The producer of information has an intention to produce a symbolic meaning of certain entities or events, put it into a context, assign it into a pre defined meaning and then transmit the information into receiver. The producer of information expected that the receiver will capture the meaning as intended (Lillrank, 2002). Consumers search for information in their pre-purchase search process for a product or service they intend to buy thus, by providing effective information does lead to improved awareness and brand perception among consumers (Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 2000; Ha, 2002; Keller, 1998), particularly for individuals with high brand trust and high perceived risk (Duncan and Moriarty, 1998). Many online buyers indicate that their buying decisions mostly depend on the information offered online (Long Ching, 2009). Bickart and Schindler (2001) found that consumers who gathered information from online discussions namely electronic word of mouth (e-WOM) reported greater interest and intention to buy in the product than did those consumers who gathered information from the marketer-generated sources. The main reason for this is highly likely to be the trust issue as raised in a study by Sen (2008). Customized information has become more important in internet nowadays based applications due to the multitude of choices that are available on the internet (Simonson, 2005; Ha, 2002). (Ha (2002), has shown that internet users are very interested in customized information offer by the web sites be this is because mostly firms today have added value by providing appropriate information to simplify the customers decision making process (Murthi and Sarkar, 2003). In addition, the source of the information is very crucial for a message to be effective and reliable and it often depends on the receivers perception of the senders trustworthiness and expertise (Kiecker and Cowles, 2001) they also suggest that the information also must be perceived believable, competent, valuable and trustworthy for information recipients. (Robinson and Kaye, 2000), found that consumers, who relied on online sources for more information, rated the online sources as more credible than other sources, so it is important tasks for managers to provide quality information online to gain trust from customers. Meyvis and Janiszewski (2002) reveal that irrelevant and lack in quality information will weakens consumers belief in the products or services ability to deliver the benefit. Hence, whether perceived quality of information is provided and, if it is provided, the quality of customized information for customers, also highly influence the level of brand trust and custom er satisfaction on the web (Ha, 2004). 2.4 Relationship among the Variables Individuals who perceive a low risk in online buying likely make decisions more quickly and less likely to take into account aspects outside of the web site. In contrast, individuals who are more fearful will behave in a more cautious way, searching for external information that warrantees a successful buying decision to decrease uncertainty in internet purchase (Martin and Camarero, 2008). Bhatnagar et al., 2000, reported that consumers were less likely to shop online in which perceived product performance risk was high than those with low product performance risk, consumers perceived risk negatively influences their intention to purchase products online. Customer who satisfied with the security, privacy and online good experience offered by the web sites will experience lower perceived risk and will have effect on the purchase intention. (Chen and Hsin, 2008) results show that consumers perceived risk towards specific online retailer with regards to purchase intention was influence by trust. As consumer trust increases because of decreasing perceived risk will influence consumer to make purchase (Chen and Hsin, 2008). 2.5 Summary This chapter reviewed literatures on consumer perception of perceived risk towards online purchase intention in detailed. Based on the findings from literature reviews, definition conception of online purchase intention, perceived risk, security, privacy, word of mouth, brand name, good online experience and quality of information are developed. In the last part of this chapter, the relationship between independent variables, mediating variable and dependent variable are constructed. Conceptualizing definitions of variables is important in order to construct a research framework in which would be discussed in chapter 3.